Urological Cancers

Quick answer: Non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer is first removed through the urethra, and further treatment depends on the risk that it will come back or progress. Low-risk tumours may need only regular cystoscopy checks, while higher-risk tumours usually receive treatment placed directly into the bladder, such as BCG immunotherapy or chemotherapy. Because recurrence is common, long-term

Quick answer: Non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer is bladder cancer that has not grown into the muscle layer of the bladder wall. Its main symptom is blood in the urine, which should always be checked. Risk factors include smoking, older age, male sex, certain workplace chemicals and past schistosomiasis. Diagnosis is made by cystoscopy, with tissue examined

Quick answer: Salvage therapy is treatment given when prostate cancer comes back after surgery or radiotherapy, usually first detected by a rising PSA on follow-up blood tests. After surgery, radiotherapy to the prostate area is the main option, sometimes with hormone therapy. After radiotherapy, options include surgery, further local treatment or hormone therapy, chosen after

Quick answer: Hormone therapy lowers testosterone or blocks its effect, because most prostate cancers need testosterone to grow. On its own it controls the cancer but does not cure it. It is combined with radiotherapy for higher-risk localised cancer and is the backbone of treatment for advanced cancer, often together with newer hormone medicines or

Quick answer: Not every prostate cancer needs immediate treatment. Low-risk cancer is often followed with active surveillance, using regular PSA tests, MRI and repeat biopsies, with treatment started if it changes. For cancer needing treatment, removing the prostate surgically or radiotherapy are the main options; each has different side effects, which should be discussed before

Quick answer: Prostate cancer is usually suspected from a raised PSA blood test or an abnormal rectal examination. Current guidelines recommend an MRI scan of the prostate before deciding on a biopsy, so that suspicious areas can be targeted. If cancer is found, further scans check whether it has spread and help plan treatment with

Quick answer: Doctors classify prostate cancer by how far it has grown (the TNM stage), how abnormal the cells look under the microscope (the Gleason score, now reported as Grade Groups), and the PSA level. Combining these places the cancer in a risk group, which guides whether monitoring, surgery, radiotherapy or other treatment is suitable.

Quick answer: Prostate cancer mainly affects older men, and age is the strongest risk factor. Risk is also higher with a father or brother who had it, in men of African descent, and in men carrying inherited gene changes such as BRCA2. The EAU guidelines state that no proven prevention strategy exists, so informed early-detection

Quick answer: When kidney cancer has spread or come back, treatment usually aims to control the disease and its symptoms rather than cure it. Targeted medicines and immunotherapy, used alone or in combination, can slow the cancer and help some people live longer. Radiotherapy may be used to ease symptoms, and palliative care teams support

Quick answer: When kidney cancer is found early and has not spread, surgery is the main treatment, often removing only part of the kidney to preserve its function. Small tumours, or people not fit for surgery, may be treated with ablation that freezes or heats the cancer. The choice depends on the tumour, kidney function